box - boxes   ['boksɪz]

IV. Nouns ending in -o have the ending [z]:

hero - heroes ['hɪǝrouz]

photo- photoes ['foutouz]

The regular plural inflexion of nouns in -o has two spellings; -os which occurs in the following cases:

a) after a vowel - bamboos, embryos, folios, kangaroos, radios, studios, zoos;

b) in proper names - Romeos, Eskimos, Filipinos;

c) in abbreviations, kilos (kilogramme), photos (photograph), pros (professional);

d) also in some borrowed words: pianos, concertos, dynamos, quartos, solos, tangos, tobaccos.

In other cases the spelling is -oes: tomatoes, echoes, Negroes, potatoes, vetoes, torpedoes, embargoes

Note:

Some nouns may form their plural in either way:

oes/os: cargo(e)s, banjo(e)s, halo(e)s.

V. The letter -y usually changes into -i:

sky           skies             [skaiz]

But the letter -y remains unchanged -ys:

a) after vowels:

days (except in nouns ending in -quy: soliloquy - soliloquies).

b) in proper names:

the two Germanys, the Kennedys, the Gatsbys;

c) in compounds:

stand-bys, lay-bys.

The word penny has two plural forms:

pence (irregular) - in British currency to denote a coin of this value or a sum of money:

Here is ten pence (in one coin or as a sum of money);

pennies (regular) - for individual coins.

Here are ten pennies.

VI. Thirteen nouns ending in -f(e) form their plural changing -f(e) into -v(e): the ending in this case is pronounced [z]:

Other nouns ending in -f(e) have the plural inflexion -s in the regular way: proof - proofs, chief - chiefs, safe - safes, cliff - cliffs, gulf - gulfs, dwarf - dwarfs, reef- reefs, grief - griefs; the ending is pronounced [s].

In a few cases both -fs and -ves forms are possible:

scarf - scarfs/scarves,

dwarf - dwarfs/dwarves,

hoof - hoofs/hooves.

VII. Nouns ending in -th after a short vowel have the ending -s [s]:

month — months [mʌnθs].

Nouns ending in -th after a long vowel or a diphthong have [9z] in the plural: baths [ba:ðz], paths [paðz], oaths [ouðz].

But: youths [ju:θs], births [bǝ:θs].

VIII. The plural of abbreviations is sometimes formed in spelling by doubling a letter:

In a phrase like "Miss Brown" two different forms are used for the plural. We may either say "the Miss Browns" or "the Misses Brown", the latter being generally considered more correct.

Irregular plurals

§ 173. For historical reasons certain nouns form their plural differently.

1. Seven nouns distinguish plural from singular by vowel change:

2. Two nouns have -en to mark the plural:

ox - oxen, child - children.

Brother has two plural forms: brothers and brethren, the latter being used as a religious term or in elevated style to denote people of the same creed, not relations.

3. With some nouns the plural is identical with the singular form (for details see § 176, II):

a) sheep-sheep (овца/ы);

swine - swine (свинья/и);

deer - deer (олень/и);

grouse - grouse (куропатка/и).

This sheep looks small. All those sheep are good.

I bought a grouse (three grouse for dinner).

There’re so many fish, they splinter the paddles.

b) identical singular and plural forms are also typical of nationality nouns in -ese, -ss: Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Swiss.

We met a Japanese. We met many Japanese on our holiday.

Note:

The word for people of the country is the same as the plural noun; the other way is to use substantivized adjectives in this sense:

Englishmen - the English           Dutchmen - the Dutch.

c) two nouns borrowed from Latin and one from French also have identical forms for singular and plural:

series - series  (ряд, серия);

species  - species  (вид, порода, род)

corps [ko:] - corps [ko:z] (корпус, род войск).

d) names, indicating number, such as:

pair, couple, dozen, score (два десятка),

stone (мера веса: 14 англ. фунтов = 6,35 кг) and

head (голова - поголовье скота)

have the same form for both the singular and plural when they are preceded by a numeral, that is, they

function as an indication of a kind of measure: two dozen of handkerchiefs, five dozen of eggs. The child

weighs two stone. One thousand head of cattle.

But when they have no number as predeterminer they take the usual plural form: dozens of times, to go in pairs.

4. A number of foreign (particularly Latin and Greek) nouns have retained their original plural endings.

Loans of Greek origin

Loans of Latin origin

Other loan nouns

As can be seen from the above list some loan nouns may have two plural forms: the English plural and the original foreign one:

There is a tendency to use the regular English plural forms in fiction and colloquial English and the foreign plural in academic or learned language.

Sometimes different plural forms have different meanings:

 § 174. Plural in compound nouns

1. As a rule in compounds it is the second component that takes the plural form:

housewives, tooth-brushes, boy-scouts, maid-servants.

2. Compounds in -ful have the plural ending at the end of the word:

handfuls, spoonfuls, mouthfuls, (though spoonsful and mouthsful are also possible).

3. Compounds in which the first component is man or woman have plurals in both first and last components:

men-servants, women-doctors, gentlemen-farmers.

4. Compounds ending in -man change it into -men in spelling. In pronunciation, however, there is no difference between the singular and plural forms, both having [ǝ]:

policeman [ǝn] - policemen [ǝn].

Such nouns as German, Roman, Norman are not compounds, and therefore they have regular plurals:

Germans, Romans, Normans.

5. In compounds originating from a prepositional noun phrase where the preposition is a linking element only the first noun takes the plural form:

editors-in-chief, mothers-in-law, commanders-in-chief, coats-of-mail, men-of-war (военные корабли).

6. In compounds with a conjunction as a linking element the plural is taken by the second noun:

gin-and-tonics.

7. In compound nouns formed by a noun plus a preposition, or an adverb, or an adjective only the first element takes the plural:

passers-by, lookers-on, courts-martial, attorneys-general.

8. When the compound is a substantivized phrase which does not contain a noun, the last element takes the plural ending –s:

forget-me-nots, breakdowns, stand-bys, grown-ups, close-ups,

 pick-ups (случайные знакомства),

drop-outs (дезертиры),

go-betweens (посредники).

Invariable nouns

Invariable nouns cannot change their number, some of them are always singular in meaning (linguistics, news), some denote plurality (cattle, police).

§ 175. Singular invariable nouns.

1. Here belong all non-count nouns:

a) material nouns - tea, sugar, gold, silver, oil, butter, sail. (As has been mentioned they may become

    count nouns with a specific meaning: cheeses - kinds of cheese, beers - portions of beer, as two glasses 

    or cans of beer, two coffees, icecreams.)

b) absrract nouns - music, anger, foolishness.

2. Proper nouns:

The Thames, Henry.

3. Some nouns ending in -s:

a) news - Here is the 10 o’clock news;

    means - by this means (этими средствами)

    gallows - They fixed up a gallows (виселицу).

b) some diseases - measles (корь), mumps (свинка), rickets (рахит), shingles (краснуха);

However sometimes the usage varies: Mumps is/are a medical problem.

c) some games - billiards, bowls (гольф), dominoes, draughts (шашки);

But when used attributively no plural is used: a billiard table.

d) some proper nouns - Algiers, Athens, Brussels, Flanders, Marseilles, Naples, Wales, the United

    Nations, thе United States.

4. Nouns ending in –ics:

classics, linguistics, mathematics, phonetics, athletics, ceramics, ethics, gymnastics, politics, tactics.

Nouns of this group are occasionally understood as plurals:

Their tactics requires/reguire concentration of troops.

Politics has/have always interested me.

Plural invariable nouns

§ 176. Plural invariable nouns comprise two types - marked and unmarked plurals.

I. In the first type the form of the noun itself shows plurality. These nouns are rather numerous. Semantically they fall into several groups:

a) names of tools or articles of dress consisting of two equal parts which are joined: bellows, binoculars, breeches, braces, flannels, glasses, pants, pincers, pliers, pyjamas, scales, scissors, shorts, spectacles, suspenders, tights, tongs, trousers, tweeters;

These nouns can be made singular and countable by means of a pair of: a pair of trousers, a pair of scissors. Accordingly they are used with the verb-predicate in the singular (this pair of trousers is ...)

b) miscellaneous nouns: annals, antics, archives, arms, ashes, the Commons (the House of Commons), contents, customs, customs-duty, customs-house, earnings, goods, goods train, greens, holidays, summer-holidays, manners, minutes (of the meeting), outskirts, quarters, headquarters, stairs, suds, surroundings, thanks, troops, wages, whereabouts, the Middle Ages;

c) some proper nouns: the East Indies, the West Indies, the Hebrides, the Highlands, the Midlands, the Netherlands.

II. In the second type of the plural invariable nouns the meaning of plurality is not marked in any form (hence the term “unmarked plural invariables”). They are usually treated as collective nouns (собирательные).

English collective nouns denote only living beings (family, police, clergy, cattle, poultry, etc.) and have two categorical meanings: the first - plurality as indivisible whole and the second - discrete plurality, that is plurality denoting separate beings. In the latter case these nouns are called nouns of multitude. Thus, one and the same noun may be a collective noun proper and a noun of multitude.

The difference in two categorical meanings is indicated by the number of the verb-predicate (singular in the first case and plural in the second), as well as by possessive and personal pronouns. The meaning of the predicate is also important: predicates denoting physiological processes or states, emotional or psychic reactions, states always imply separate beings involved into it. Compare the following examples:

Discrete plurality is also expressed by substantivized adjectives denoting people:

the helpless, the needy, the poor, the sick, the weary, the rich.

§ 177. Ways of showing partition.

Many non-count nouns combine with a set of nouns showing some part of material or abstract notion. Here are some typical partitives for material and abstract nouns:

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